Wire bonding methods and systems incorporating metal nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

Wire bonding operations can be facilitated through the use of metal nanoparticle compositions. Both ball bonding and wedge bonding processes can be enhanced in this respect. Wire bonding methods can include providing a wire payout at a first location from a rolled wire source via a dispensation head, contacting a first metal nanoparticle composition and a first portion of the wire payout with a bonding pad, and at least partially fusing metal nanoparticles in the first metal nanoparticle composition together to form an adhering interface between the bonding pad and the first portion of the wire payout. The adhering interface can have a nanoparticulate morphology. Wire bonding systems can include a rolled wire source, a dispensation head configured to provide a wire payout, and an applicator configured to place a metal nanoparticle composition upon at least a portion of the wire payout or upon a bonding pad.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/233,912, filed Aug. 10, 2016, which claims the benefit of priorityunder 35 U.S.C. § 119 from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.62/206,807, filed Aug. 18, 2015, both of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entireties.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not applicable.

FIELD

The present disclosure generally relates to wire bonding and, morespecifically, to implementation of metal nanoparticles in wire bonding.

BACKGROUND

Automated wire bonding processes, particularly thermosonic wire bondingprocesses, have long been a popular and reliable way to connectsemiconductor dies to packing terminals by way of a wire loop. Wirebonding processes are considered to be one of the most cost-effectiveand reliable ways to form interconnects within semiconductor systems.Conventional wire bonding processes include ball bonding and wedgebonding attachment motifs. Ball bonding methods apply energy to a wire,such as through brief exposure to an electric arc, to form a liquefiedball of metal (referred to in the art as a free air ball) upon the tipof the wire, which is then contacted with a bonding pad with furtherultrasonic agitation to form a metallurgical bond. Wedge bonding methodsdiffer in their application of energy to the sidewall of a wire tofacilitate formation of a metallurgical bond. Undesirable pad splash,pad cratering, and damage to an underlying electronic component cansometimes occur in conventional wire bonding processes if they are notperformed carefully.

Gold has traditionally been used as a wire material in wire bondingprocesses, particularly ball bonding processes, due to variousoperational advantages. Recent increases in the price of gold andaccompanying price volatility have led to a search for alternative wirematerials, with copper being an often-utilized choice in someapplications. A chief advantage of copper compared to gold is the muchlower cost of copper. Inductance and capacitance are also similar forthese two metals. Copper, however, has other physical and metallurgicalproperties that differ significantly from those of gold. The differingproperties of copper lead to competing advantages and disadvantages whenutilizing this material in wire bonding processes. Copper can desirablybe utilized at smaller wire diameters and provide higher electricalperformance (i.e., lower parasitic resistance), improved thermalbehavior, and greater mechanical strength (i.e., increased hardness)compared to gold. However, in order to overcome the greater hardness ofcopper, a higher energy input can be needed in conventional copper wirebonding processes to facilitate formation of a metallurgical bond. Thehigher energy input can result in an increased incidence of pad splash,pad cratering, interface spreading, and electronic component damage.Increased susceptibility of copper to oxidation and corrosion can alsobe problematic. These combined effects can be associated with anincreased incidence of device failure, lower processing reliability, andlimited throughput (yield). Indeed, the wire bonding community hasimplemented strict processing parameters for conventional copper wirebonding processes to reduce the risk of bonding pad damage. Theserigorous processing parameters can be very difficult to maintain and canseverely limit throughput. An additional difficulty associated withconventional copper wire bonding processes is the higher pitch sometimesproduced with this metal compared to gold, which correspondinglydecreases the attainable wire density upon a bonding pad or othersurface. Although copper has the potential to provide performance thatis at least comparable to that of gold, the foregoing limitations ofconventional copper wire bonding processes presently limit use of thismetal to various low-end consumer products.

In addition to the strict processing parameters typically utilizedduring conventional copper wire bonding processes, the hardness of thismetal can also significantly increase wear within a wire bonding systemin which it is used. Specifically, a capillary bonding head providing acopper wire payout can wear much faster than when a gold wire isprovided. The increased system wear associated with copper can result insignificant cost increases, particularly for high-volume applications,due to process downtime and material costs of replacing broken parts.Although more robust capillary bonding heads are in development, failureof this component still remains an issue in conventional copper wirebonding processes. Despite recent advances in dispensation technology,accelerated grain growth within the free air ball and low pullout forcescan remain problematic in conventional copper wire bonding processes.

In view of the foregoing, improved systems and methods to facilitatewire bonding, particularly copper wire bonding systems and methods,would be of significant interest in the art. The present disclosuresatisfies these needs and provides related advantages as well.

SUMMARY

In various embodiments, the present disclosure provides wire bondingmethods that include providing a wire payout at a first location from arolled wire source via a dispensation head, contacting a first metalnanoparticle composition and a first portion of the wire payout with abonding pad in electrical communication with an electronic component,and at least partially fusing metal nanoparticles in the first metalnanoparticle composition together to form an adhering interface betweenthe bonding pad and the first portion of the wire payout.

In other various embodiments, the present disclosure provides electricalpackages including a bonding pad in electrical communication with anelectronic component, a lead, a wire loop extending between the bondingpad and the lead, and an adhering interface having a nanoparticulatemorphology disposed between the wire loop and at least one of thebonding pad and the lead.

In still other various embodiments, the present disclosure provides wirebonding systems including a rolled wire source, a dispensation headconfigured to provide a wire payout from the rolled wire source, and anapplicator configured to place a metal nanoparticle composition upon atleast a portion of the wire payout or upon a bonding pad.

The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features of the presentdisclosure in order that the detailed description that follows can bebetter understood. Additional features and advantages of the disclosurewill be described hereinafter. These and other advantages and featureswill become more apparent from the following description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, and theadvantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptionsto be taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings describingspecific embodiments of the disclosure, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows an illustrative schematic of an electrical package in whichmultiple electrical connections are formed between a bonding pad and alead;

FIG. 2 shows a schematic illustrating various operations in aconventional wire bonding process;

FIG. 3 shows a schematic of an illustrative wire bonding process inwhich metal nanoparticles are applied to the tip of a wire payout andundergo liquefication to form a free air ball;

FIG. 4 shows a schematic of an illustrative wire bonding process inwhich metal nanoparticles are applied to the tip of a wire payout andundergo direct liquefication upon a bonding pad to form a metallurgicalbond;

FIGS. 5 and 6 show schematics of illustrative wire bonding processes inwhich metal nanoparticles are applied to a bonding pad before beingcontacted with the tip of a wire payout; and

FIGS. 7 and 8 show presumed structures of illustrative metalnanoparticles having a surfactant coating thereon.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure is directed, in part, to wire bonding systemsthat are configured to incorporate metal nanoparticles in the wirebonding process. The present disclosure is also directed, in part, towire bonding methods utilizing metal nanoparticles. The presentdisclosure is also directed, in part, to electrical packages having awire loop connected to an adhering interface exhibiting ananoparticulate morphology.

As discussed above, conventional wire bonding systems and methods sufferfrom certain disadvantages when adapted for use with copper. Althoughcopper is advantageous compared to the more commonly used gold in termsof the former metal's cost and hardness, the hardness of copper canconcurrently lead to several undesirable consequences when contacting acopper wire with a bonding pad. Copper's hardness can also lead tosignificant wear in the components of a wire bonding system. As afurther issue, copper suffers from corrosion and oxide formation uponexposure to air, and engineering controls to include an inert atmosphereduring copper wire bonding often need to be implemented. Gold, incontrast, is relatively inert toward oxide formation, and limitedengineering controls are typically needed when working with this metal.

The present inventors discovered that metal nanoparticles, particularlycopper nanoparticles, can facilitate improved wire bonding methods.Before further discussing the wire bonding methods and systems of thepresent disclosure, a brief introduction to metal nanoparticles andtheir properties will first be provided so that the various embodimentsof the present disclosure can be better understood. Further detailsdirected to metal nanoparticles and compositions thereof, such asnanoparticle paste compositions, are provided hereinbelow.

As used herein, the term “metal nanoparticle” refers to metal particlesthat are about 100 nm or less in size, without particular reference tothe shape of the metal particles. Although metal nanoparticles can besubstantially spherical in shape, they need not necessarily be so. Metalnanoparticles can exhibit a number of properties that differsignificantly from those of the corresponding bulk metal. One propertyof metal nanoparticles that can be of particular interest islow-temperature consolidation that occurs at the metal nanoparticles'fusion temperature. As used herein, the term “fusion temperature” refersto the temperature at which a metal nanoparticle liquefies, therebygiving the appearance of melting. Upon cooling, the liquefied metalnanoparticles can fuse to form a consolidated mass having properties(e.g., melting point) approaching those of the corresponding bulk metal.As used herein, the terms “fusion,” “consolidation,” and variousgrammatical forms thereof refer to the coalescence or partialcoalescence of liquefied metal nanoparticles to form a larger mass.Consolidation of the metal nanoparticles increases the effective grainsize within the consolidated mass. Depending on how the consolidationprocess is performed, the grain size in the consolidated mass canmaintain a nanoparticulate morphology, sometimes remaining near the sizeof the original metal nanoparticles, or approach that of thecorresponding bulk metal.

The fusion temperature of metal nanoparticles is generally well belowthe melting point of the corresponding bulk metal. Upon decreasing insize, particularly below about 20 nm in equivalent spherical diameter,the temperature at which metal nanoparticles undergo liquefication dropsdramatically from that of the corresponding bulk metal. For example,copper nanoparticles having a size of about 20 nm or less can havefusion temperatures of about 220° C. or below, or about 200° C. orbelow, in comparison to bulk copper's melting point of 1083° C. Thus,metal nanoparticles can allow metal working to take place at processingtemperatures that are considerably below the melting point of thecorresponding bulk metal.

The low fusion temperatures of metal nanoparticles allow these entitiesto facilitate wire bonding processes that can employ less energy thanthose conventionally used. Specifically, metal nanoparticles canfacilitate low-energy contact and joining of wires that otherwise sufferfrom difficulties in conventional wire bonding processes, particularlythose utilizing copper wires. By utilizing a decreased sonication time,power and/or application force, a strong metallurgical bond strength canbe maintained in the processes of the present disclosure whilesignificantly reducing the risk of component damage during the wirebonding process. It is believed that the wire bonding processesdescribed herein can maintain metallurgical bond strengths near thoseproduced in conventional wire bonding techniques while reducing theamount of applied stress by up to about 30%. Accordingly, the wirebonding processes described herein can allow more relaxed processcontrols and higher throughput to be realized compared to conventionalwire bonding processes. In the case of copper, the processes of thepresent disclosure can advantageously allow copper wire bonding to beexpanded into high-performance markets such as in the aerospace,medical, and automotive markets. Dense arrays of wedge bonding-typeattachment to a bonding pad can also be realized by practicing thevarious embodiments of the present disclosure.

More specifically, the inventors discovered that the facileliquefication of metal nanoparticles can provide a transient liquidphase to promote ready attachment of a wire within an electricalpackage, such as to a bonding pad of an electronic component. Uponcooling and consolidation of the transient liquid phase, ananoparticle-based interface can provide adherence between the wire andthe bonding pad. Both ball bonding-type and wedge bonding-type processescan be enhanced in this regard. Such low-energy wire bonding processescan be especially advantageous in the case of copper wires, given thepreviously discussed issues associated with copper wire bondingprocesses. In addition, metal nanoparticles can allow decreased pitchvalues and increased wire densities to be realized during copper wirebonding due to the smaller bond areas (e.g., 1-1.3 times the copper wirediameter) attainable using the processes described herein. Specifically,wire bonding processes utilizing metal nanoparticles allow the wire tobe bonded to a bonding pad without substantial deformation or spreadingof the wire occurring. In contrast, wire deformation can result indoubling of the wire diameter or more in some conventional copper wirebonding processes. Formation of undesirable intermetallic phases canalso be avoided in some instances by employing the processes of thepresent disclosure. Although metal nanoparticles can be particularlyadvantageous for promoting copper wire bonding, it is to be recognizedthat the wire bonding processes of the present disclosure can also beapplied to other types of wires, including traditionally used gold wiresor more non-traditional wires such as silver or aluminum. In a furtherextension, metal nanoparticles can also be used to facilitate joining ofcarbon nanotube (CNT) wires or other non-metallic wires to a bonding padby employing the disclosure herein.

By incorporating metal nanoparticles in automated wire bondingprocesses, the rigorous controls that are often implemented in copperwire bonding processes can be significantly relaxed or modified.Although metal nanoparticles do not necessarily address the issuesassociated with air oxidation of copper, the inert processing conditionstypically associated with this metal are not overly problematic to dealwith. Furthermore, metal nanoparticles are not believed to exacerbatethe air oxidation of copper or require modifications to the inertprocessing conditions utilized in conventional copper wire bondingprocesses.

In various embodiments, wire bonding methods of the present disclosurecan include providing a wire payout at a first location from a rolledwire source via a dispensation head, contacting a first metalnanoparticle composition and a first portion of the wire payout with abonding pad in electrical communication with an electronic component,and at least partially fusing metal nanoparticles in the first metalnanoparticle composition together to form an adhering interface betweenthe bonding pad and the first portion of the wire payout.

In illustrative embodiments, the dispensation head can be a capillarybonding head or a piezoelectric tweezer bonding head. Piezoelectrictweezer bonding heads can be particularly desirable since they can bemuch less susceptible to wear than is a capillary bonding head.Piezoelectric tweezer bonding heads, for example, can be fabricated fromceramics such as tungsten carbide or other rugged materials. Thepiezoelectric forces can be used to hold, place and cut the wire payoutin the processes described herein. In illustrative embodiments, the wirepayout can protrude from the dispensation head about 20 to about 50microns to facilitate contact with the first metal nanoparticlecomposition, either upon a tip or sidewall of the wire payout.

Both ball bonding-type and wedge bonding-type attachment motifs can befacilitated using the wire bonding processes disclosed herein. Asindicated above, the wire payout usually does not substantially deformin the wire bonding processes described herein, thereby providingadditional distinction over conventional ball bonding or wedge bondingprocesses. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the first portion of thewire payout contacted with the first metal nanoparticle composition canbe a tip of the wire payout. In other embodiments, the first portion ofthe wire payout can be a sidewall of the wire payout. Tip contact of thefirst metal nanoparticle composition can result in a wire bonding motifthat is similar to that of conventional ball bonding processes (i.e.,end-on attachment of the wire), and sidewall contact can result in awire bonding motif that is similar to that of conventional wedge bondingprocesses (i.e., side-on attachment of the wire). Wedge bonding-typeattachment can also be realized through tip contact as well in theembodiments described herein. In either case, an at least partiallyfused metal nanoparticle composition can serve as an adhering interfacebetween the wire payout and a bonding surface without substantialdeformation of the wire taking place in some instances. In variousembodiments, the adhering interface can range between about 1 micron toabout 30 microns in thickness, or between about 1 micron to about 20microns in thickness.

In various embodiments, the metal nanoparticles in the first metalnanoparticle composition can become at least partially fused togetherthrough any combination of heating, pressure, and sonication. In someembodiments, heating of the bonding pad (e.g., upon a heated stage) andsubsequent cooling thereof can result in liquefication and consolidationof the metal nanoparticles to form an adhering interface. In otherembodiments, methods of the present disclosure can include applyingpressure, ultrasonic energy and/or heat to the first metal nanoparticlecomposition via the dispensation head. As discussed above, theapplication of pressure and/or ultrasonic energy can be less rigorousthan in conventional wire bonding processes, which can be advantageousfor the reasons discussed above. In still other embodiments, heating ofthe metal nanoparticle composition can take place through lasersintering, heated gas streams, or photolytic processes to promoteconsolidation of the metal nanoparticles. Additional details concerningthe wire bonding process to the bonding pad are provided hereinafter.

In further embodiments, the processes of the present disclosure can beextended to produce an electronic package by forming a metallurgicalbond in a second location. More specifically, the methods of the presentdisclosure can further include moving the dispensation head to a secondlocation; contacting a second portion of the wire payout with a lead atthe second location; adhering the wire payout to the lead, therebyforming a wire loop extending between the bonding pad and the lead; andsevering the wire payout from the wire loop. A wedge bonding-typeattachment motif can result at the second location.

In some embodiments, metal nanoparticles can be used to facilitate theformation of the metallurgical bond at the second location. Morespecifically, the methods of the present disclosure can includecontacting a second metal nanoparticle composition and at least aportion of the wire payout with the lead, and at least partially fusingmetal nanoparticles in the second metal nanoparticle compositiontogether to form an adhering interface between the lead and at least aportion of the wire payout. Depending on various operationalconsiderations, the first metal nanoparticle composition and the secondmetal nanoparticle composition can be the same or different. Separatereservoirs of the first metal nanoparticle composition and the secondmetal nanoparticle composition can be maintained nearby the bonding padand the lead to expedite the wire bonding processes described herein.

In alternative embodiments, the metallurgical bond at the secondlocation can be formed without utilizing metal nanoparticles. Formationof the metallurgical bond in this manner can occur similarly toconventional wire bonding processes.

The above operations can be iterated multiple times to form a pluralityof wire loops extending between the bonding pad and one or more nearbyleads. FIG. 1 shows an illustrative schematic of an electrical packagein which multiple electrical connections are formed between a bondingpad and a lead. As shown in FIG. 1, electrical package 1 includesbonding pad 4 and chip 8. Chip 8 contains various leads and electricalcircuitry disposed thereon. Wire loops 6 a-6 e extend between bondingpad 4 and chip 8. Interfaces 5 a-5 e provide a metallurgical bondbetween bonding pad 4 and first ends of corresponding wire loops 6 a-6e. Similarly, interfaces 9 a-9 e allow a metallurgical bond to beestablished between the leads and second ends of corresponding wireloops 6 a-6 e. Interfaces 5 a-5 e can be of a ball bonding-type or wedgebonding type motif (i.e., end-on or side on), and interfaces 9 a-9 e canbe of a wedge bonding-type motif. The second ends of wire loops 6 a-6 eare in electrical communication with a circuit defined on chip 8, whichshould be considered illustrative in nature and non-limiting. Likewise,although FIG. 1 has depicted 5 wire loops 6 a-6 e extending betweenbonding pad 4 and chip 8, it should be recognized that any number andconfiguration of wire loops can be present to accommodate the needs of aparticular application. Such considerations related to the design ofelectrical package 1 lie within the purview of one having ordinary skillin the art. Wedge bonding-type motifs can be desirable due to their lowprofile (e.g., wire angles generally less than 45 degrees with respectto the bonding pad or lead, particularly less than about 30 degrees).

In regard to FIG. 1, it should be further noted that electrical package1 resembles those produced by the systems and methods of the presentdisclosure, with the understanding that interfaces 5 a-5 e and 9 a-9 ecan have a nanoparticulate morphology in the various embodiments of thepresent disclosure. Without the nanoparticulate morphology being presentin the various interfaces or without the various interfaces beingpresent at all, electrical package 1 can resemble those produced byconventional wire bonding processes. Accordingly, in variousembodiments, the present disclosure describes electrical packagesincluding a bonding pad in electrical communication with an electroniccomponent, a lead, a wire loop extending between the bonding pad and thelead, and an adhering interface having a nanoparticulate morphologydisposed between the wire loop and at least one of the bonding pad andthe lead. Further disclosure in this regard, particularly concerning thenanoparticulate morphology, is provided hereinbelow.

In some embodiments, an adhering interface can be present between atleast the bonding pad and the wire loop. In other embodiments, anadhering interface can be present between the wire loop and both thebonding pad and the lead.

Before further discussing the wire bonding systems and methods of thepresent disclosure, in which metal nanoparticles are employed, aconventional wire bonding system and method will first be described inbrief so that the various embodiments of the present disclosure can bebetter understood. FIG. 2 shows a schematic illustrating variousoperations in a conventional wire bonding process. As shown in operation(a), wire payout 10 from rolled wire source 12 is provided throughcapillary bonding head 16. Tip 18 of wire payout 10 protrudes from thebottom of capillary bonding head 16. Electric arc 20 is fired at tip 18(electric arc source not depicted), which results in free air ball 22being formed at the bottom of capillary bonding head 16, as shown inoperation (b).

While free air ball 22 is being formed, wire payout 10 is verticallyheld in place by clamp 24. As shown in operation (c), upon retraction ofclamp 24, capillary bonding head 16 descends such that free air ball 22contacts bonding pad 26. While free air ball 22 contacts bonding pad 26,capillary bonding head 16 is laterally reciprocated in operation (d)with an input of ultrasonic energy to spread out free air ball 22,thereby forming a metallurgical bond via interface 28.

Upon completion of operation (d), a first end of wire payout 10 isattached to bonding pad 26 by a first metallurgical bond. Although FIG.2 shows tip bonding to pad 26, wedge bonding can result in a relatedmanner. In either case, the first metallurgical bond has a considerablywider spread than the diameter of wire payout 10. Thereafter, capillarybonding head 16 is raised and moved to a second location to facilitateformation of a second metallurgical bond. Since clamp 24 remains open,the length of wire payout 10 extends in this process. As shown inoperation (e), after capillary bonding head 16 is moved, side 29 of wirepayout 10 contacts chip 30. Application of heat and/or pressure resultsin formation of a second metallurgical bond upon chip 30, leaving wireloop 32 extending between bonding pad 26 and chip 30. The secondmetallurgical bond is a wedge bond. Upon raising capillary bonding head16 and closing clamp 24 in operation (f), wire payout 10 severs, leavingtip 18 newly protruding from capillary bonding head 16. At thisjuncture, the wire bonding system is ready for formation of another wirebond by repeating the processes described above.

The methods of the present disclosure can incorporate various aspects ofconventional wire bonding processes, such as those illustrativelydepicted in FIG. 2, which have been further modified by incorporatingmetal nanoparticles to facilitate formation of a metallurgical bond. Asindicated above, the methods of the present disclosure includecontacting a first metal nanoparticle composition and a first portion ofthe wire payout with a bonding pad. The first metal nanoparticlecomposition can be applied to the tip or sidewall of the wire payoutbefore being contacted with the bonding pad (FIGS. 3 and 4) or directlyto the bonding pad before being contacted with the tip or sidewall ofthe wire payout (FIGS. 5 and 6). Techniques which can be applied forapplying the metal nanoparticle composition can include, for example,spray deposition, ink jet printing, screen printing, aerosol printing,template printing, syringe deposition, spreading, painting, stamping,dipping, dragging, drop deposition, and the like. Whether the firstnanoparticle composition is being applied to the wire payout or to thebonding pad can determine the suitability of a given depositiontechnique. For example, in some embodiments, the tip of the wire payoutcan be dragged through a thin layer of the first metal nanoparticlecomposition (e.g., <1 mm in thickness) to provide a minimal amount ofmetal nanoparticles thereon. Spray coating, ink jet printing, aerosolprinting, or drop deposition can be particularly suitable forapplication of the first metal nanoparticle composition upon the bondingpad. These processes can deposit the metal nanoparticle composition overa large area, and localized consolidation can take place in eachlocation where contact with the wire payout takes place.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic of an illustrative wire bonding process inwhich metal nanoparticles are applied to the tip of a wire payout andundergo liquefaction to form a free air ball. As shown in FIG. 3, metalnanoparticle coating 36 can be applied to tip 18 through a suitabletechnique (e.g., stamping) using an applicator 55, leaving tip 18 betterconditioned for forming a metallurgical bond. The low fusion temperatureof metal nanoparticles in metal nanoparticle coating 36 can allow freeair ball 22 to be formed at a lower temperature than would be possiblein conventional wire bonding processes conducted with the same bulkmetal. Although FIG. 3 has again shown electric arc 20 for forming freeair ball 22, it is to be recognized that alternative heat sources can beused to affect heating in order to take advantage of the low fusiontemperature of metal nanoparticles. For example, a laser, direct radiantheating, heated gas, or photolytic heating can be utilized asalternative heating sources in some embodiments to affect activation ofthe metal nanoparticles. These heat sources can also be used in otherembodiments described herein. Since the resulting ball diameter can besmaller than in conventional wire bonding processes, less vertical forceand lower ultrasonic energy can be input for forming interface 28 uponbonding pad 26. Otherwise, the wire bonding process can continue in amanner similar to that described above in reference to FIG. 2.

Alternately, separate formation of free air ball 22 can be avoidedaltogether in some instances by directly contacting metal nanoparticlecoating 36 with bonding pad 26. Application of heat, pressure, and/orultrasonic energy to metal nanoparticle coating 36 can produce atransient liquid phase upon tip 18, which can form a metallurgical bondupon re-solidification. FIG. 4 shows a schematic of an illustrative wirebonding process in which metal nanoparticles are applied to the tip of awire payout using the applicator 55 and undergo direct liquefaction upona bonding pad to form a metallurgical bond. Other than circumventingformation of free air ball 22, the method illustrated in FIG. 4 issimilar to that shown in FIG. 3 and may be better understood byreference thereto.

Although FIGS. 3 and 4 have depicted application of the first metalnanoparticle composition to tip 18 of wire payout 10, it is to berecognized that the first metal nanoparticle composition can also beapplied to the sidewall of wire payout 10 using the applicator 55 in asimilar manner consistent with the disclosure herein. In the case ofsidewall application of the first nanoparticle composition to wirepayout 10, the wire bonding to bonding pad 26 can be wedge bonding-type(i.e., side-on). The wire angle with respect to bonding pad 26 can beless than about 45 degrees or less than about 30 degrees, for example.

As indicated above, the first metal nanoparticle composition can bedirectly applied to the bonding pad in alternative embodiments of thepresent disclosure. FIGS. 5 and 6 show schematics of illustrative wirebonding processes in which metal nanoparticles are applied to a bondingpad using the applicator 55 before being contacted with the tip of awire payout. As shown in FIG. 5, free air ball 22 can be formed and thencontacted with metal nanoparticle coating 36 upon bonding pad 26.Interface 28 can then form in a manner similar to that described above.In contrast, in FIG. 6, separate formation of free air ball 22 can beavoided altogether by directly contacting tip 18 with metal nanoparticlecoating 36 upon bonding pad 26. Upon liquefying the metal nanoparticles,interface 28 can form in a manner similar to that described above.Again, it is to be recognized that sidewall contact of the wire payoutcan take place in an alternative configuration to that depicted in FIG.6. Sidewall contact of the wire payout can be particularly desirable dueto increased wire density, decreased wire profile, and improvedmetallurgical bond strength over that resulting from tip contact.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, the first metal nanoparticlecomposition can be contacted with at least the tip of the wire payoutbefore being contacted with the bonding pad. In some or otherembodiments, the first metal nanoparticle composition can be contactedwith the bonding pad before being contacted with the tip of the wirepayout. In still other embodiments, the first metal nanoparticlecomposition can be contacted with a sidewall of the wire payout beforeor after being contacted with the bonding pad. In either case, formationof the interface can then take place in accordance with the disclosureabove.

FIGS. 3-6 described and depicted above are directed to formation of afirst metallurgical bond upon a bonding pad. As discussed above, anothermetallurgical bond can be formed in a second location to establish awire loop extending between the first location and the second location.In some instances, conventional wire bonding techniques can be employedto form a metallurgical bond at the second location. For example, insome embodiments, a side of the wire payout can be contacted with thewire payout at the second location, and heat and ultrasonic energy canbe applied to form the metallurgical bond at the second location. Moredesirably, however, techniques incorporating metal nanoparticles andrelated to those described above can be used to facilitate formation ofthe metallurgical bond at the second location. Specifically, a secondmetal nanoparticle composition can be used at the second location tofacilitate formation of the metallurgical bond.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, methods of the present disclosure caninclude contacting a second metal nanoparticle composition with the wirepayout before the wire payout is contacted with the lead. In the case ofthe second location, the second metal nanoparticle composition iscontacted with the sidewall of the wire payout. Afterward, the metalnanoparticles in the second nanoparticle composition can be consolidatedto form an adhering interface at the lead, in which the wire loop isattached to the lead via its sidewall. In other embodiments, the secondmetal nanoparticle composition can be contacted with the lead before thelead is contacted with the wire payout. Again, consolidation of themetal nanoparticles can form an adhering interface upon a suitable inputof energy, and the wire loop can be attached to the lead via itssidewall. Since the wire bonding processes taking place at the secondlocation bear similarities to those employed at the first location, thewire bonding processes shown in FIGS. 3-6 can be used to understand thewire bonding processes taking place at the second location, while alsomaking further reference to FIG. 2. Accordingly, wire bonding processesutilizing metal nanoparticles at the second location will not bedescribed herein in further detail or shown in the figures in theinterest of brevity.

In some embodiments, multiple dispensation heads can operate in tandemto form a plurality of metallurgical bonds at the bonding pad and thelead. In some embodiments, the wire payout can be cut prior tocontacting the lead to better facilitate contact with the secondnanoparticle composition. In some embodiments, a line of metallurgicalbonds can be fabricated using multiple dispensation heads, withalternating dispensation heads forming a metallurgical bond at thebonding pad for a first wire and a second dispensation head forming ametallurgical bond at the lead for a second wire. In some embodiments,such processes can be facilitated by directly printing the nanoparticlecompositions onto the bonding pad and the lead.

As indicated above, the wire bonding processes described herein can beparticularly advantageous for wire bonding processes utilizing copperwire. However, the methods described herein should not be considered tobe limited in this respect. Forms of the wire payout suitable for use inconjunction with the systems and methods of the present disclosure caninclude, for example, copper wire, gold wire, aluminum wire, silverwire, carbon nanotube ropes, drawn carbon nanotube fibers, or anycombination therein. As used herein, the term “carbon nanotube ropes”refers to a plurality of carbon nanotubes that are held together by vander Waals forces in an elongated fiber. As used herein, the term “drawncarbon nanotube fiber” refers to an elongated fiber formed from carbonnanotubes that are drawn from a carbon nanotube solution or suspension,such as a dispersion of carbon nanotubes in various types of superacidmedia.

In some embodiments, palladium-coated copper wires can be utilized asthe wire payout. Although palladium-coated copper wires can provideincreased oxidation resistance, they are harder than are pristine copperwires. Hence, the temperature and/or the applied ultrasonic energy canneed to be raised when utilizing such wires in conventional wire bondingprocesses but not those disclosed herein. Alternative techniques forconveying oxidation resistance involve modification of the metalnanoparticle composition, as discussed further herein. Palladium-coatedcopper wires can also be useful for lowering contact resistance inembodiments, in which carbon nanotubes are present in the wire payout.Palladium can be included in the nanoparticle composition for similarpurposes.

The diameter of the wire payout used in the various embodiments of thepresent disclosure can reside within a similar range to that utilized inconventional wire bonding processes. In general, the diameter of thewire payout can range between about 5 microns and about 100 microns, orbetween about 10 microns and about 50 microns, or between about 15microns and about 30 microns. In the specific case of gold wire, thediameter of the wire payout can range between about 18 microns and about25 microns, in some instances. For copper wire, in contrast, theeffective diameter range can be about 2.5 microns smaller, in someinstances, due to an increased size of the free air ball formed withthis metal in conventional wire bonding processes. Other metal wires canreside within similar size ranges. By employing the processes describedherein, much smaller interfaces can be formed than in conventional wirebonding processes in which a free air ball is formed.

Contact pressures for forming metallurgical bonds from the wire payoutcan likewise reside within a similar range to that of conventional wirebonding processes, or even lower pressures can be used. In variousembodiments, a pressure of about 0.01 N/wire to about 0.6 N/wire can beutilized, as applied through the dispensation head (e.g., the capillarybonding head or the tweezers in piezoelectric tweezer bonding head). Thecapillary bonding head or tweezers can push down upon the metalnanoparticle composition to apply pressure and transmit ultrasonicenergy and/or heat thereto. The actual amount of contact pressure to beapplied can vary depending upon the amount of ultrasonic energy that isapplied. In various embodiments, the ultrasonic power can range betweenabout 100 mW to about 500 mW at a frequency of about 60-120 kHz. Heatcan also be supplied by the dispensation head in some instances.

Similarly, the temperature to which the metal nanoparticle compositionis heated can vary depending upon the amount of applied pressure and/orultrasonic energy. The nature of the bonding pad and/or the lead canalso dictate the effective temperature range over which the metalnanoparticle composition needs to be heated. In various embodiments, themetal nanoparticle composition can be heated within a range of about 80°C. to about 250° C., or within a range of about 120° C. to about 220°C., or within a range of about 140° C. to about 180° C., or within arange of about 180° C. to about 250° C. The nature of the metal wireand/or the metal nanoparticles and their fusion temperature can alsodictate the effective temperature range over which heating can occur.Heating can take place through various processes such as, for example,radiant heating, laser sintering, heated gas streams, photolyticheating, or any combination thereof.

In various embodiments, the systems and methods of the presentdisclosure can utilize an inert atmosphere. In some embodiments, theinert atmosphere can be localized in the region where a metallurgicalbond is being formed. Use of an inert atmosphere can be particularlydesirable when utilizing copper wire and/or copper nanoparticles topromote formation of a metallurgical bond. Suitable techniques andequipment for supplying an inert gas to a location where a metallurgicalbond is being formed will be familiar to one having ordinary skill inthe art and will not be addressed further herein. In some embodiments,helium, neon, argon, or nitrogen represent illustrative inert gases thatcan be suitable for establishing an inert atmosphere in the systems andmethods of the present disclosure.

In more specific embodiments, the systems and methods of the presentdisclosure can utilize copper nanoparticles to promote formation of ametallurgical bond. Copper nanoparticles can be particularly desirablefor use in conjunction with copper wires, since such nanoparticles canavoid the formation of intermetallic phases that might otherwise beformed. Suitable copper nanoparticles, copper nanoparticle compositions,and methods for forming copper nanoparticles and copper nanoparticlecompositions are provided hereinbelow. It is to be recognized that othermetal nanoparticles and compositions thereof can be synthesized usingcomparable synthetic methodology and can be substituted for coppernanoparticles to accommodate various operational considerations thatwill be familiar to one having ordinary skill in the art. For example,other suitable metal nanoparticles and metal nanoparticle compositionscan include those containing copper, silver, gold, palladium, aluminum,tin and the like.

As indicated above, the metal nanoparticles forming a metallurgical bondor adhering interface in the wire bonding processes of the presentdisclosure can maintain a nanoparticulate morphology upon undergoingliquefication and subsequent re-solidification. In general, theinterface can have a grain size that is smaller than that of the wirediameter. For example, in some embodiments, the interfaces formedbetween the bonding pad and the wire payout and/or the between the leadand the wire payout can have a grain size of about 250 nm or less,particularly within a size range of about 50 nm to about 200 nm. At thisgrain size, the interfaces can have pores that range in size betweenabout 50 nm to about 500 nm, and the porosity can range between about 2%to about 30%. The pores at these grain sizes are substantiallynon-interconnected with one another, thereby limiting contact of themetal nanoparticles or consolidated nanoparticle grains with the outsideatmosphere or other materials. In alternative embodiments of the presentdisclosure, more extensive consolidation of the metal nanoparticles canlead to even larger grain sizes, approaching that of bulk metal, andeven lower porosity values can be utilized.

A number of scalable processes for producing bulk quantities of metalnanoparticles, such as copper nanoparticles, in a targeted size rangehave been developed, several of which are further described hereinbelow.Such processes typically involve reducing a metal precursor in thepresence of a surfactant, followed by isolation of the metalnanoparticles from the reaction mixture. The metal nanoparticles canhave a surfactant coating on their exterior surface, which can furthertailor the properties of the metal nanoparticles. Such metalnanoparticles can be further dispersed in a solvent for improvedworkability and dispensation, or formulated into a paste. Exemplarycompositions are described hereinbelow.

Particularly facile metal nanoparticle fabrication techniques aredescribed in commonly owned U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,736,414, 8,105,414,8,192,866, 8,486,305, 8,834,747, 9,005,483, and 9,095,898, each of whichis incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As describedtherein, metal nanoparticles can be fabricated in a narrow size range byreduction of a metal salt in a solvent in the presence of a suitablesurfactant system. Further description of suitable surfactant systemsfollows below. In the presence of a suitable surfactant system, metalnanoparticles having a size range between about 1 nm and about 50 nm andincluding a surfactant coating thereon can be produced. In moreparticular embodiments, metal nanoparticles having a surfactant coatingand a size range between about 1 nm and about 20 nm, or between about 1nm and about 10 nm, or between about 1 nm and about 7 nm, or betweenabout 1 nm and about 5 nm can be produced.

Suitable organic solvents for solubilizing metal salts and forming metalnanoparticles can include aprotic solvents such as, for example,formamide, N,N-dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylpropyleneurea, hexamethylphosphoramide, tetrahydrofuran, glyme, diglyme,triglyme, tetraglyme, and the like. Reducing agents suitable forreducing metal salts and promoting the formation of metal nanoparticlescan include, for example, an alkali metal in the presence of a suitablecatalyst (e.g., lithium naphthalide, sodium naphthalide, or potassiumnaphthalide) or borohydride reducing agents (e.g., sodium borohydride,lithium borohydride, potassium borohydride, or a tetraalkylammoniumborohydride).

Without being bound by any theory or mechanism, FIGS. 7 and 8 showpresumed structures of illustrative metal nanoparticles having asurfactant coating thereon. As shown in FIG. 7, metal nanoparticle 40includes metallic core 42 and surfactant layer 44 overcoating metalliccore 42. Surfactant layer 44 can contain any combination of surfactants,as described in more detail below. Metal nanoparticle 50 shown in FIG. 8is similar to that depicted in FIG. 7, but metallic core 42 is grownabout nucleus 41, which can be a metal that is the same as or differentthan that of metallic core 42. Because nucleus 41 is buried deep withinmetallic core 42 in metal nanoparticle 50, it is not believed tosignificantly affect the overall nanoparticle properties.

In various embodiments, the surfactant coating upon the metalnanoparticles contains one or more surfactants. The surfactant coatingcan be formed on the metal nanoparticles during their synthesis.Formation of a surfactant coating on the metal nanoparticles duringtheir synthesis can desirably tailor the ability of the metalnanoparticles to fuse to one another, limit their agglomeration with oneanother, and promote the formation of a population of metalnanoparticles having a narrow size distribution.

In various embodiments, the surfactant system used to prepare the metalnanoparticles can include one or more surfactants. The differingproperties of various surfactants can be used to tailor the propertiesof the metal nanoparticles, such as their size and reactivity. Factorsthat can be taken into account when selecting a surfactant orcombination of surfactants for use in synthesizing metal nanoparticlescan include, for example, ease of surfactant dissipation from the metalnanoparticles during nanoparticle fusion, nucleation and growth rates ofthe metal nanoparticles, affinity of the surfactants with the chosenmetal, and the like.

In some embodiments, an amine surfactant or combination of aminesurfactants, particularly aliphatic amines, can be used during thesynthesis of metal nanoparticles. Amine surfactants, in particular, canhave a high affinity for bonding to copper nanoparticles. In someembodiments, two amine surfactants can be used in combination with oneanother. In other embodiments, three amine surfactants can be used incombination with one another. In more specific embodiments, a primaryamine, a secondary amine, and a diamine chelating agent can be used incombination with one another. In still more specific embodiments, thethree amine surfactants can include a long chain primary amine, asecondary amine, and a diamine having at least one tertiary alkyl groupnitrogen substituent. This surfactant system can be particularlyefficacious for forming copper nanoparticles having a narrow size rangedistribution. Further disclosure regarding suitable amine surfactantsfollows hereinafter.

In some embodiments, the surfactant system can include a primaryalkylamine. In some embodiments, the primary alkylamine can be a C₂-C₁₈alkylamine. In some embodiments, the primary alkylamine can be a C₇-C₁₀alkylamine. In other embodiments, a C₅-C₆ primary alkylamine can also beused. Without being bound by any theory or mechanism, the exact size ofthe primary alkylamine can be balanced between being long enough toprovide an effective inverse micelle structure versus having readyvolatility and/or ease of handling. For example, primary alkylamineswith more than 18 carbons can also be suitable for use in the presentembodiments, but they can be more difficult to handle because of theirwaxy character. C₇-C₁₀ primary alkylamines, in particular, can representa good balance of desired properties for ease of use.

In some embodiments, the C₂-C₁₈ primary alkylamine can be n-heptylamine,n-octylamine, n-nonylamine, or n-decylamine, for example. While theseare all straight chain primary alkylamines, branched chain primaryalkylamines can also be used in other embodiments. For example, branchedchain primary alkylamines such as, for example, 7-methyloctylamine,2-methyloctylamine, or 7-methylnonylamine can be used in someembodiments. In some embodiments, such branched chain primaryalkylamines can be sterically hindered where they are attached to theamine nitrogen atom. Non-limiting examples of such sterically hinderedprimary alkylamines can include, for example, t-octylamine,2-methylpentan-2-amine, 2-methylhexan-2-amine, 2-methylheptan-2-amine,3-ethyloctan-3-amine, 3-ethylheptan-3-amine, 3-ethylhexan-3-amine, andthe like. Additional branching can also be present. Without being boundby any theory or mechanism, it is believed that primary alkylamines canserve as ligands in the metal coordination sphere but can be readilydissociable during metal nanoparticle fusion.

In some embodiments, the surfactant system can include a secondaryamine. Secondary amines suitable for forming metal nanoparticles caninclude normal, branched, or cyclic C₄-C₁₂ alkyl groups bound to theamine nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, the branching can occur on acarbon atom bound to the amine nitrogen atom, thereby producingsignificant steric encumbrance at the nitrogen atom. Suitable secondaryamines can include, without limitation, dihexylamine, diisobutylamine,di-t-butylamine, dineopentylamine, di-t-pentylamine, dicyclopentylamine,dicyclohexylamine, and the like. Secondary amines outside the C₄-C₁₂range can also be used, but such secondary amines can have undesirablephysical properties such as low boiling points or waxy consistenciesthat can complicate their handling.

In some embodiments, the surfactant system can include a chelatingagent, particularly a diamine chelating agent. In some embodiments, oneor both of the nitrogen atoms of the diamine chelating agent can besubstituted with one or two alkyl groups. When two alkyl groups arepresent on the same nitrogen atom, they can be the same or different.Further, when both nitrogen atoms are substituted, the same or differentalkyl groups can be present. In some embodiments, the alkyl groups canbe C₁-C₆ alkyl groups. In other embodiments, the alkyl groups can beC₁-C₄ alkyl groups or C₃-C₆ alkyl groups. In some embodiments, C₃ orhigher alkyl groups can be straight or have branched chains. In someembodiments, C₃ or higher alkyl groups can be cyclic. Without beingbound by theory or mechanism, it is believed that diamine chelatingagents can facilitate metal nanoparticle formation by promotingnanoparticle nucleation.

In some embodiments, suitable diamine chelating agents can includeN,N′-dialkylethylenediamines, particularly C₁-C₄N,N′-dialkylethylenediamines. The corresponding methylenediamine,propylenediamine, butylenediamine, pentylenediamine or hexylenediaminederivatives can also be used. The alkyl groups can be the same ordifferent. C₁-C₄ alkyl groups that can be present include, for example,methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl groups, or branched alkyl groups suchas isopropyl, isobutyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl groups. IllustrativeN,N′-dialkylethylenediamines that can be suitable for use in formingmetal nanoparticles include, for example,N,N′-di-t-butylethylenediamine, N,N′-diisopropylethylenediamine, and thelike.

In some embodiments, suitable diamine chelating agents can includeN,N,N′,N′-tetraalkylethylenediamines, particularly C₁-C₄N,N,N′,N′-tetraalkylethylenediamines. The correspondingmethylenediamine, propylenediamine, butylenediamine, pentylenediamine orhexylenediamine derivatives can also be used. The alkyl groups can againbe the same or different and include those mentioned above. IllustrativeN,N,N′,N′-tetraalkylethylenediamines that can be suitable for use informing metal nanoparticles include, for example,N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine,N,N,N′,N′-tetraethylethylenediamine, and the like.

Surfactants other than aliphatic amines can also be present in thesurfactant system. In this regard, suitable surfactants can include, forexample, pyridines, aromatic amines, phosphines, thiols, or anycombination thereof. These surfactants can be used in combination withan aliphatic amine, including those described above, or they can be usedin a surfactant system in which an aliphatic amine is not present.Further disclosure regarding suitable pyridines, aromatic amines,phosphines, and thiols follows below.

Suitable aromatic amines can have a formula of ArNR¹R², where Ar is asubstituted or unsubstituted aryl group and R¹ and R² are the same ordifferent. R¹ and R² can be independently selected from H or an alkyl oraryl group containing from 1 to about 16 carbon atoms. Illustrativearomatic amines that can be suitable for use in forming metalnanoparticles include, for example, aniline, toluidine, anisidine,N,N-dimethylaniline, N,N-diethylaniline, and the like. Other aromaticamines that can be used in conjunction with forming metal nanoparticlescan be envisioned by one having ordinary skill in the art.

Suitable pyridines can include both pyridine and its derivatives.Illustrative pyridines that can be suitable for use in forming metalnanoparticles include, for example, pyridine, 2-methylpyridine,2,6-dimethylpyridine, collidine, pyridazine, and the like. Chelatingpyridines such as bipyridyl chelating agents can also be used. Otherpyridines that can be used in conjunction with forming metalnanoparticles can be envisioned by one having ordinary skill in the art.

Suitable phosphines can have a formula of PR₃, where R is an alkyl oraryl group containing from 1 to about 16 carbon atoms. The alkyl or arylgroups attached to the phosphorus center can be the same or different.Illustrative phosphines that can be used in forming metal nanoparticlesinclude, for example, trimethylphosphine, triethylphosphine,tributylphophine, tri-t-butylphosphine, trioctylphosphine,triphenylphosphine, and the like. Phosphine oxides can also be used in alike manner. In some embodiments, surfactants that contain two or morephosphine groups configured for forming a chelate ring can also be used.Illustrative chelating phosphines can include 1,2-bisphosphines,1,3-bisphosphines, and bis-phosphines such as BINAP, for example. Otherphosphines that can be used in conjunction with forming metalnanoparticles can be envisioned by one having ordinary skill in the art

Suitable thiols can have a formula of RSH, where R is an alkyl or arylgroup having from about 4 to about 16 carbon atoms. Illustrative thiolsthat can be used for forming metal nanoparticles include, for example,butanethiol, 2-methyl-2-propanethiol, hexanethiol, octanethiol,benzenethiol, and the like. In some embodiments, surfactants thatcontain two or more thiol groups configured for forming a chelate ringcan also be used. Illustrative chelating thiols can include, forexample, 1,2-dithiols (e.g., 1,2-ethanethiol) and 1,3-dithiols (e.g.,1,3-propanethiol). Other thiols that can be used in conjunction withforming metal nanoparticles can be envisioned by one having ordinaryskill in the art.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, metal nanoparticles canbe dispersed in an organic matrix containing one or more organicsolvents to form a metal nanoparticle composition. In some embodiments,this composition can be in the form of a paste. Use of the term “paste”does not necessarily imply an adhesive function. The term “nanoparticlepaste formulation” may be used synonymously herein with the term “metalnanoparticle composition.” In some embodiments, at least some of the oneor more organic solvents can have a boiling point of about 100° C. orgreater. In some embodiments, at least some of the one or more organicsolvents can have a boiling point of about 200° C. or greater. In someembodiments, the one or more organic solvents can have boiling pointsranging between about 50° C. and about 200° C. Use of high boilingorganic solvents can desirably increase the pot life. In someembodiments, at least some of the one or more organic solvents can havea boiling point that is higher than those of the surfactants associatedwith the metal nanoparticles. Accordingly, in such embodiments, thesurfactant(s) can be removed from the metal nanoparticles by evaporationbefore removal of the organic solvent(s) takes place.

In some embodiments, an organic matrix containing one or morehydrocarbons, one or more alcohols, one or more amines, and one or moreorganic acids can be especially desirable. Without being bound by anytheory or mechanism, it is believed that this combination of organicsolvents can facilitate the removal and sequestration of surfactantmolecules surrounding the metal nanoparticles, such that the metalnanoparticles can more easily fuse together with one another. Moreparticularly, it is believed that hydrocarbon and alcohol solvents canpassively solubilize surfactant molecules released from the metalnanoparticles by Brownian motion and reduce their ability to becomere-attached thereto. In concert with the passive solubilization ofsurfactant molecules, amine and organic acid solvents can activelysequester the surfactant molecules through a chemical interaction suchthat they are no longer available for recombination with the metalnanoparticles.

In some embodiments, more than one member of each class of organicsolvent (i.e., hydrocarbons, alcohols, amines, and organic acids), canbe present in the organic matrix, where the members of each class haveboiling points that are separated from one another by a set degree. Forexample, in some embodiments, the various members of each class can haveboiling points that are separated from one another by about 20° C. toabout 50° C. By using such a solvent mixture, sudden volume changes dueto rapid loss of solvent can be minimized during metal nanoparticleconsolidation, since the various components of the solvent mixture canbe removed gradually over a broad range of boiling points (e.g., about50° C. to about 200° C.).

In some embodiments, the organic matrix can contain one or morealcohols. In various embodiments, the alcohols can include monohydricalcohols, diols, triols, glycol ethers (e.g., diethylene glycol andtriethylene glycol), alkanolamines (e.g., ethanolamine, triethanolamine,and the like), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, one ormore hydrocarbons can be present in combination with one or morealcohols. As discussed above, it is believed that alcohol andhydrocarbon solvents can passively promote the solubilization ofsurfactants as they are removed from the metal nanoparticles by Brownianmotion and limit their re-association with the metal nanoparticles.Moreover, hydrocarbon and alcohol solvents only weakly coordinate withmetal nanoparticles, so they do not simply replace the displacedsurfactants in the nanoparticle coordination sphere. Illustrative butnon-limiting examples of alcohol and hydrocarbon solvents that can bepresent in the nanoparticle compositions include, for example, lightaromatic petroleum distillate (CAS 64742-95-6), hydrotreated lightpetroleum distillates (CAS 64742-47-8), tripropyleneglycol methyl ether,ligroin (CAS 68551-17-7, a mixture of C₁₀-C₁₃ alkanes),diisopropyleneglycol monomethyl ether, diethyleneglycol diethyl ether,2-propanol, 2-butanol, t-butanol, 1-hexanol, 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol,and terpineol. In some embodiments, polyketone solvents can be used in alike manner.

In some embodiments, the organic matrix can contain one or more aminesand one or more organic acids. In some embodiments, the one or moreamines and one or more organic acids can be present in an organic matrixthat also includes one or more hydrocarbons and one or more alcohols. Asdiscussed above, it is believed that amines and organic acids canactively sequester surfactants that have been passively solubilized byhydrocarbon and alcohol solvents, thereby making the surfactantsunavailable for re-association with the metal nanoparticles. Thus, anorganic solvent that contains a combination of one or more hydrocarbons,one or more alcohols, one or more amines, and one or more organic acidscan provide synergistic benefits for promoting the consolidation ofmetal nanoparticles. Illustrative but non-limiting examples of aminesolvents that can be present in the organic matrix include, for example,tallowamine (CAS 61790-33-8), alkyl (C₈-C₁₈) unsaturated amines (CAS68037-94-5), di(hydrogenated tallow)amine (CAS 61789-79-5), dialkyl(C₈-C₂₀) amines (CAS 68526-63-6), alkyl (C₁₀-C₁₆) dimethyl amine (CAS67700-98-5), alkyl (C₁₄-C₁₈) dimethyl amine (CAS 68037-93-4),dihydrogenated tallowmethyl amine (CAS 61788-63-4), and trialkyl(C₆-C₁₂) amines (CAS 68038-01-7). Illustrative but non-limiting examplesof organic acid solvents that can be present in the organic matrixinclude, for example, octanoic acid, nonanoic acid, decanoic acid,caprylic acid, pelargonic acid, undecylic acid, lauric acid, tridecylicacid, myristic acid, pentadecanoic acid, palmitic acid, margaric acid,stearic acid, nonadecylic acid, α-linolenic acid, stearidonic acid,oleic acid, and linoleic acid.

In addition to metal nanoparticles and organic solvents, other additivescan also be present in the nanoparticle paste formulations. Suchadditional additives can include, for example, rheology control aids,thickening agents, micron-scale conductive additives, nanoscaleconductive additives, and any combination thereof. Chemical additivescan also be present. As discussed hereinafter, the inclusion ofmicron-scale conductive additives can be particularly advantageous.

In some embodiments, the micron-scale conductive additives can bemicron-scale metal particles. In some embodiments, the nanoparticlepaste formulations can contain about 0.01% to about 15% micron-scalemetal particles by weight, or about 1% to about 10% micron-scale metalparticles by weight, or about 1% to about 5% micron-scale metalparticles by weight. Inclusion of micron-scale metal particles in thenanoparticle paste formulations can desirably reduce the incidence ofcracking that occurs during consolidation of the metal nanoparticles.Without being bound by any theory or mechanism, it is believed that themicron-scale metal particles can become consolidated with one another asthe metal nanoparticles are liquefied and flow between the micron-scalemetal particles. In some embodiments, the micron-scale metal particlescan range between about 500 nm to about 100 microns in size in at leastone dimension, or from about 500 nm to about 10 microns in size in atleast one dimension, or from about 100 nm to about 5 microns in size inat least one dimension, or from about 100 nm to about 10 microns in sizein at least one dimension, or from about 100 nm to about 1 micron insize in at least one dimension, or from about 1 micron to about 10microns in size in at least one dimension, or from about 5 microns toabout 10 microns in size in at least one dimension, or from about 1micron to about 100 microns in size in at least one dimension. Moredesirably, the micron-scale metal particles can be smaller in size thanthe wire payout in the embodiments of the present disclosure. Themicron-size metal particles can contain the same metal as the metalnanoparticles or contain a different metal. Thus, metal alloys can befabricated by including micron-size metal particles that differ from themetal nanoparticles in the nanoparticle paste formulations. Suitablemicron-scale metal particles can include, for example, Cu, Ni, Al, Fe,Co, Mo, Ag, Zn, Sn, Au, Pd, Pt, Ru, Mn, Cr, Ti, V, Mg or Ca particles.Non-metal particles such as, for example, Si, P and B can be used in alike manner. In some embodiments, the micron-scale metal particles canbe in the form of metal flakes, such as high aspect ratio copper flakes,for example. That is, in some embodiments, the nanoparticle pasteformulations described herein can contain a mixture of coppernanoparticles and high aspect ratio copper flakes. Specifically, in someembodiments, the nanoparticle paste formulations can contain about 30%to about 98% copper nanoparticles by weight and about 0.01% to about 15%high aspect ratio copper flakes by weight. Other micron-scale metalparticles that can be used equivalently to high aspect ratio metalflakes include, for example, metal nanowires and other high aspect ratioparticles, which can be up to 300 microns in length.

In some embodiments, nanoscale conductive additives can also be presentin the nanoparticle paste formulations. These additives can desirablyprovide further structural reinforcement and reduce shrinkage duringmetal nanoparticle consolidation. Moreover, inclusion of nanoscaleconductive additives can increase electrical and thermal conductivityvalues that can approach or even exceed that of the corresponding bulkmetal following nanoparticle consolidation. In some embodiments, thenanoscale conductive additives can have a size in at least one dimensionranging between about 1 micron and about 100 microns, or ranging betweenabout 1 micron and about 300 microns. Suitable nanoscale conductiveadditives can include, for example, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and thelike. When present, the nanoparticle paste formulations can containabout 1% to about 10% nanoscale conductive additives by weight, or about1% to about 5% nanoscale conductive additives by weight. Additionalsubstances that can also optionally be present include, for example,flame retardants, UV protective agents, antioxidants, carbon black,graphite, fiber materials (e.g., chopped carbon fiber materials), andthe like.

In more particular embodiments, metal nanoparticle compositions suitablefor use in conjunction with the methods of the present disclosure caninclude Ni, Ag, Al, Si, P, Zn or any combination thereof in order topromote oxidation resistance. Sn, Pd, Pt, Cr, Co, M, V and Ti can alsobe present in some embodiments. These additives can be present in acompound form or in an elemental form. Moreover, these additives can bepresent in the form of nanoparticles or microparticles, or alloyed withnanoparticles or microparticles. In more particular embodiments, metalnanoparticle compositions containing any of the above additives can alsocontain copper nanoparticles.

One way in which nanoparticle paste formulations can promote a decreaseddegree of cracking and void formation during metal nanoparticleconsolidation is by maintaining a high solids content. Moreparticularly, in some embodiments, the present nanoparticle pasteformulations can contain at least about 30% metal nanoparticles byweight, particularly about 30% to about 98% metal nanoparticles byweight of the metal nanoparticle paste formulation, or about 50% toabout 90% metal nanoparticles by weight of the metal nanoparticle pasteformulation, or about 70% to about 90% metal nanoparticles by weight ofthe metal nanoparticle paste formulation, or about 80% to about 98%metal nanoparticles by weight of the metal nanoparticle pasteformulation, or about 85% to about 98% metal nanoparticles by weight ofthe metal nanoparticle paste formulation. Moreover, in some embodiments,small amounts (e.g., about 0.01% to about 15% by weight of thenanoparticle paste formulation) of micron-scale metal particles can bepresent in addition to the metal nanoparticles. Such micron-scale metalparticles can desirably promote the fusion of metal nanoparticles into aconsolidated mass and further reduce the incidence of cracking. Insteadof being liquefied and undergoing fusion, the micron-scale metalparticles can simply become joined together when contacted withliquefied metal nanoparticles that have been raised above their fusiontemperature.

Decreased cracking and void formation during metal nanoparticleconsolidation can also be promoted by judicious choice of the solvent(s)forming the organic matrix of the nanoparticle paste formulations. Atailored combination of organic solvents can promote consolidation ofthe metal nanoparticles with a decreased incidence of cracking and voidformation. More particularly, an organic matrix containing one or morehydrocarbons, one or more alcohols, one or more amines, and one or moreorganic acids can be especially effective for this purpose. Withoutbeing bound by any theory or mechanism, it is believed that thiscombination of organic solvents can facilitate the removal andsequestration of surfactant molecules surrounding the metalnanoparticles, such that the metal nanoparticles can more easily fusetogether with one another. More particularly, it is believed thathydrocarbon and alcohol solvents can passively solubilize surfactantmolecules released from the metal nanoparticles by Brownian motion andreduce their ability to become re-attached thereto. In concert with thepassive solubilization of surfactant molecules, amine and organic acidsolvents can actively sequester the surfactant molecules through achemical interaction such that they are no longer available forrecombination with the metal nanoparticles.

Further tailoring of the solvent composition can be performed to reducethe suddenness of volume contraction that takes place during surfactantremoval and metal nanoparticle consolidation. Specifically, more thanone member of each class of organic solvent (i.e., hydrocarbons,alcohols, amines, and organic acids), can be present in the organicmatrix, where the members of each class have boiling points that areseparated from one another by a set degree. For example, in someembodiments, the various members of each class can have boiling pointsthat are separated from one another by about 20° C. to about 50° C. Byusing such a solvent mixture, sudden volume changes due to rapid loss ofsolvent can be minimized during metal nanoparticle consolidation, sincethe various components of the solvent mixture can be removed graduallyover a broad range of boiling points (e.g., about 50° C. to about 200°C.).

In order to promote dispensability through micron-size apertures, thenanoparticle paste formulations can desirably have a low maximumparticle size. In some embodiments, the nanoparticle paste formulationscan be homogenized to break apart aggregates of metal nanoparticles inorder for a low maximum particle size to be realized. Size-basedseparation techniques can also be employed in some embodiments. In someembodiments, the nanoparticle paste formulations can have a maximumparticle size of about 10 microns or less. In other embodiments, thenanoparticle paste formulations can have a maximum particle size ofabout 5 microns or less, or about 4 microns or less, or about 3 micronsor less, or about 2 microns or less, or about 1 microns or less. Themaximum particle size may include agglomerates of metal nanoparticleswith themselves and with other components of the nanoparticle pasteformulations. The viscosity of the nanoparticle paste formulations canalso be tailored to promote a desired mode of application in the wirebonding processes of the present disclosure.

Accordingly, in other various embodiments, the present disclosure alsodescribes wire bonding systems that are configured to incorporate metalnanoparticles in the wire bonding process. In various embodiments, thewire bonding systems can include a rolled wire source 12, a dispensationhead 16 configured to provide a wire payout from the rolled wire source,and an applicator 55 configured to place a metal nanoparticlecomposition upon at least a portion of the wire payout or upon a bondingpad. Suitable dispensation heads 16 can include conventional capillarybonding heads or piezoelectric tweezer bonding heads. Suitableapplicators 55 configured to place the metal nanoparticle compositioncan include any of the various components used in dip coating, spraycoating, ink jet printing, screen printing, aerosol printing, rollercoating, syringe deposition, spreading, painting, stamping, or the like.

In further embodiments, the systems can include a heat source configuredto heat the metal nanoparticle composition upon the wire payout or uponthe bonding pad. Suitable heat sources include, for example, radiantheaters, lasers, electric arcs, heated gas streams, photolytic heaters(e.g., a xenon lamp) and the like. For example, in the presence of0.2-8% formic acid, 95% dense interfaces having a conductivity up toabout 80% that of bulk copper can be realized through laser sintering orphotosintering. Photosintering using a xenon lamp can be particularlyrapid (e.g., approximately 2 msec at a power of 0.18 J/mm² to 0.21J/mm²).

The systems and methods of the present disclosure can furtherincorporate a reservoir of the first and/or second metal nanoparticlecompositions. For example, in some embodiments, a reservoir of the firstand/or second metal nanoparticle compositions can be placed near thedispensation head so as to facilitate application to the wire payout.The amount applied to the wire payout or the bonding pad can be as smallas needed to facilitate metallurgical bond formation. The morphology ofthe first and/or second nanoparticle compositions can be tailored, forexample, so that only a small amount of the composition is picked uponbrushing of the wire payout through the reservoir.

Although the disclosure has been described with reference to the aboveembodiments, one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciatethat these are only illustrative of the disclosure. It should beunderstood that various modifications can be made without departing fromthe spirit of the disclosure. The disclosure can be modified toincorporate any number of variations, alterations, substitutions orequivalent arrangements not heretofore described, but which arecommensurate with the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Additionally,while various embodiments of the disclosure have been described, it isto be understood that aspects of the disclosure may include only some ofthe described embodiments. Accordingly, the disclosure is not to be seenas limited by the foregoing description.

What is claimed is the following:
 1. An electrical package comprising: abonding pad in electrical communication with an electronic component; alead; a plurality of wire loops extending between the bonding pad andthe lead; and an adhering interface having a nanoparticulate structuredisposed between each of the plurality of wire loops and at least one ofthe bonding pad and the lead, wherein the adhering interface has a grainsize of 250 nm or less, wherein the adhering interface has pores thatrange in size between about 50 nm to about 500 nm, and wherein thenanoparticulate structure is a localized consolidation of metalnanoparticles of a metal nanoparticle composition, and wherein the metalnanoparticle composition is disposed over a region of the bonding podand includes localized consolidation of metal nanoparticles in the metalnanoparticle composition for each location in the region where contactbetween one of the plurality of wire loops and the bonding pad exist. 2.The electrical package of claim 1, wherein the adhering interface ispresent between the plurality of wire loops and both the bonding pad andthe lead.
 3. The electrical package of claim 1, wherein each of theplurality of wire loops comprises a copper wire, a gold wire, analuminum wire, a silver wire, carbon nanotube ropes, a drawn carbonnanotube fiber, or any combination thereof.
 4. The electrical package ofclaim 1, wherein the adhering interface is formed from a coppernanoparticle composition.
 5. The electrical package of claim 1, whereineach of the plurality of wire loops comprises a copper wire and theadhering interface is formed from a copper nanoparticle composition. 6.The electrical package of claim 1, wherein the lead is disposed on theelectronic component.
 7. The electrical package of claim 1, wherein eachof the plurality of wire loops forms an angle of less than 45 degreeswith the bonding pad or lead.
 8. The electrical package of claim 7,wherein each of the plurality of wire loops forms an angle of less than30 degrees with the bonding pad or lead.
 9. The electrical package ofclaim 1, wherein the adhering interface has a grain size ranging between50 nm and 200 nm.
 10. The electrical package of claim 1, wherein theadhering interface has a porosity ranging between 2% and 30%.
 11. A wirebonding system comprising: a rolled wire source; a dispensation headconfigured to provide a wire payout from the rolled wire source; and anapplicator configured to place a metal nanoparticle composition upon atleast a portion of the wire payout.
 12. The wire bonding system of claim11, further comprising: a heat source configured to heat the metalnanoparticle composition upon the wire payout or upon a bonding pad. 13.The wire bonding system of claim 12, wherein the heat source is anelectric arc, a laser, direct radiant heating, heated gas, or photolyticheating.
 14. The wire bonding system of claim 11, wherein thedispensation head is a piezoelectric tweezer bonding head or a capillarybonding head.